A Brief Survey of the 19th
Century Background
15th
July 2016
Presenter: Laldanmawia
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Introduction:
If we are going to study philosophy and
theology, we may need to go back to the previous years or centuries where they
laid their basis for their developments. For example, the Reformation challenged
the practices of Roman Catholic traditions; to study about Reformation
theology, we may need to go back to the study of the Roman Catholic theology.
Likewise, the 20th Century theologies have their challenge and their
foundation in the previous centuries. That is why a brief exploration of the
previous century has been done in this paper. So, this paper limits to the
brief survey of the 19th Century.
1.
An Overview of the 19th Century:
In a political world, the 19th
Century encountered the fall of the French empire under Napoleon, Spanish
empire, Holy Roman Empire, Mughal Empire in India. European Imperialism had a
greater effect to the countries of Asia, Africa and South America. British,
Russia, United State of America, Japan, German, etc extended their powers. [1] In
a scientific world, it was an era of inventions and scientific discoveries. Electricity
was invented in 1882 by Thomas A. Edison, telegraph by Samuel Morse in 1844,
telephone by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, and inventions of medicines. Economically, the Industrial Revolution
helped countries of Europe and America to grow in their economic production as
well as human living standard. There was a great development in the invention
of tools, implements, materials, machines for home use, agricultural use and
factory use.[2]
Christianity experienced revivals. Even though
it was an age of reason, loyalty to the church was a notable feature and
churches were added with new members in America and Europe. Revival had great
results that the Salvation Army was established in 1865 by William Booth, and a
famous person D.L. Moody was converted in 1857.[3] The
Revival or Awakening encouraged churches to establish mission societies and
send missionaries to different corner of the world. The enlightenment in the 18th
Century made an impact to the philosophical and theological thinking of the 19th
Century. Rationalism of the enlightenment was challenged by Romanticism,
empiricism and existentialism. Other ideological or philosophical thoughts like
Pragmatism, utilitarianism, positivism, humanism, Marxism, etc had also influenced
theologies of 19th Century.[4]
2.
Factors that influenced Theologies of 19th Century:
2.1. Enlightenment:
The Enlightenment or the Age of Reason emphasized rationalism. Rationalism
underlined knowledge by reason and reason alone.[5] Immanuel
Kant in his essay ‘What is Enlightenment?’
highlighted the motto "Have the
courage to use your own understanding." There was an inability to use
one’s own reason without another’s guidance mainly due to lack of knowledge.
But the enlightenment encouraged man’s emergence from his self nature of
inability to use his own reason to argue the present situation.[6]
The idea of reason in the enlightenment and the explanation given by Immanuel Kant
played significant role in shaping the 19th Century theologies.
2.2. Romanticism: Romanticism
was a reactionary movement against the major theme of Enlightenment, which is
knowledge of reality through human reason. It appeals to the human imagination
of feeling. Friedrich Schleiermacher was with this, and he argued that
Christianity was a matter of feeling or self consciousness. And Romanticism
claims that imagination can transcend the limitation of human reason.[7]
2.3. Marxism: Business
Dictionary defines Marxism as “a system of economic, social, and political
philosophy based on ideas that view social change in terms of economic factors”.[8]
It was a
theory or a philosophy founded by Karl Marx. It emphasizes Socialism that would
replace Capitalism. It looks for the
removal of a manipulation of the minorities. To establish a classless society
and social justice, revolutionary action was encouraged. It looks for the
restoration of human dignity to the poor and oppressed.[9] That
is why the modern Christian theology, particularly Latin American Liberation
theology had got the insights from Marx’s ideas.[10]
2.4. Liberalism:
Liberalism in its natural sense
is a philosophy that considers individual liberty, individual right and
equality of opportunity. The main theological trend in the 19th
Century was liberalism. Theological Liberalism was a movement rooted in the
enlightenment. It attempted to incorporate modern thinking into the Christian
faith. It emphasizes on human freedom in his/her responding to God. It tends to
emphasize ethics over doctrine, as well as experience over Scriptural
authority. Liberal Theology gave birth to other movements with varying emphases
like the Social Gospel, theological Feminism, Liberation theology, Process theology,
etc. And different movements came out to react the liberalism by attempting to
reaffirm the traditional Christian orthodoxy, like Neo-Orthodoxy,
Evangelicalism, Fundamentalism, Pentecostalism, Post-Liberalism, etc. [11]
3.
Personalities in the 19th Century:
3.1. Friedrich Schleiermacher
(1768-1834): Schleiermacher was born in
Breslau. He was regarded as the father of modern theology, insisting Liberalism.
He was a member of Romanticism in Germany. He maintained that religion was not
a knowing or doing, but a feeling of
absolute dependence.[12]
His theology is anthropocentric. Sin according to him is the absence of
God-consciousness. Salvation is through the act of sinlessness and perfection
as conditioned by the being of God in him.. He feels that Jesus had a perfect
God-consciousness. Jesus is truly a human being, a perfect without sinlessness.[13]
3.2. David Friedrich Strauss
(1898-1874): Strauss was born near Stuttgart in Germany.
He was known for his Biblical Criticism. He saw the life of Jesus as a
dialectical where man and God, humanity and divinity, finite and infinite were
conjoined. Thus Jesus was illustrated as essential unity of divine and human,
because Jesus of the Gospels was taken more as a principle than as a person. [14]
3.3. Albrecht Ritschl (1822-1889): Ritschl
was born in Berlin. He became professor at Tubingen and then at Gottingen. He emphasized
communal aspect of Christianity, rejecting individualism and subjectivism. To
him, our faith is rooted in the fellowship of church. He opposed the church
fathers for their importing of Greek philosophy in the church. He was
interested in Kingdom of God that is revealed in Jesus Christ, thinking that it
was the highest good or goal. It is interpreted as the moral unification of
humanity in love. He understood sin as selfishness, it is not inherited. He
emphasized the work of Christ rather than the person. [15]
3.4. Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855):
Soren Kierkegaard, an essayist, novelist, satirist, philosopher, humorist,
theologian, psychologist, journalist, sociologist, poet, was born in 1813 in
Copenhagen in Denmark Kierkegaard boldly rejected the prevalent Hegelian
philosophy, like his way of thinking, coupled with assumptions about rational
reality, the synthesis of opposites and progressive path of truth. He talks
about existence and subjectivity. To exist is to be in the middle between
finite and infinite, time and eternity, hope and despair. Therefore, for
existentialist, present moment, individual, subjectivity, the contextual
situation are more important than eternal truth, objectivity, etc. He freely
admits that he was not a Christian. But he defines what it means to be Christian
that is becoming a contemporary with Christ. He presents Christ as God
incognito, God in a very good person. According to him, Real Christianity is no
longer exists in Christendom. .[16]
4. Events that
influenced the Development of Theologies:
In the 19th Century, the
History of Christianity encountered multiple issues and events. Those were significant
in shaping theological thinking. Some events are:
4.1. The Second Great Awakening: The Second Great Awakening began in the United
States in the later 18th Century, from the earnestness in Christian
living and devotion. It results in founding several mission societies. One
remarkable society was the American Board
of Commissioners for Foreign Missions founded in1822. In the local
churches, women missionary societies appeared which were later developed into
various feminine organizations. In some
way, the root of the American Feminism can be traced back to this Second Great
Awakening. There was a rapid increasing of church members in Baptist and
Methodist. It reflected Romanticism, and rejected rationalism. Millennialism,
Holiness movement, second Coming of Jesus Christ, etc were some of the emphasis
of the Awakening.[17]
4.2. Missionary Movement: The historian K.S. Latourette called the 19th
Century as the Great Century of Christian Mission. It was also known as the
Century of Western Colonialism in terms of political and commercial. Mission
was closely link with Imperialism. However the founding of missionary societies
was not caused by European Colonialism. But it was the outcome of the spiritual
awakenings in the 18th Century. It gave evangelical Christians the
Biblical motive to share the gospel of Jesus Christ. Many missionary societies
sent numerous missionaries to Asia, Africa and Pacific Island. Faith missions
came up with a conviction that they should look to God alone for their
governing support. These were exclusively associated with conservative
evangelicalism, like fundamentalist in America. An important development in the
mission is the increase of women missionaries. Women entering into mission
influenced feminism. R. Pierce Beaver referred the surge of American women into
mission as the first Feminist movement in North America.[18]
4.3.
First Vatican Council: The First Vatican Council was an ecumenical council of the
Roman Catholic Church. It was held between 1869 and 1870 to become one of the
most important events in Roman Catholic history. They talk about a draft decree, after passing, it became
the Dogmatic Constitution, Dei Filius.
It contained God’s creative act, revelation, faith and reason.[19]
Conclusion:
Theologies in the 20th
Century were very much influenced by theologies and philosophies in the 19th
Century as described in this paper. Some theologies came out as the reaction,
some as the complement, and some came out of the influence. All the theological
trends in the 19th Century could not be completed here in single
presentation if we have to go detail about them. But the above presentation is
only the brief introduction to the Century with a limitation of coverage.
Bibliography:
Gonzalez,
Justo L. The History of Christianity.
San Francisco: harper & Row, Publishers,
1984.
Hrangkhuma, F. Introduction to Church History. Bangalore: Theological Book Trust,
1996.
Kerr, Hugh T. Readings in Christian Thought. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1966.
Mahony,
Fr. Christopher O, Church History: A
Summary. Alwaye: Pontifical Institute of
Theology
and Philosophy, 1974.
McGrath, Alister E. Christian Theology: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell publishers
Ltd,
2001.
Renwick, A.M. and A.M. Harman. The Story of the Church. Leicester:
Intervarsity Press,
1994.
Stephen, M. New Trends in Christian Theology. New Delhi: Serials Publications,
2009.
Webliography:
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/Marxism.html (accessed July 11, 2016).
http://www.theopedia.com/theological-liberalism
(accessed July 7, 2016).
Kant, Immanuel. “What Is Enlightenment?” http://www.columbia.edu/acis/ets/CCREAD /etscc/kant. html#note1(accessed July 7, 2016).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_century (accessed July 12, 2016).
[2]
F. Hrangkhuma, Introduction to Church
History (Bangalore: Theological Book Trust, 1996), 334.
[3]
A.M. Renwick and A.M. Harman, The Story
of the Church (Leicester: Intervarsity Press, 1994), 192-193.
[4]
M. Stephen, New Trends in Christian
Theology (New Delhi: Serials Publications, 2009), 10.
[5]
Alister E. McGrath. Christian Theology:
An Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell publishers Ltd, 2001), 89.
[6] Immanuel Kant, “What Is Enlightenment?” http://www.columbia.edu/acis/ets/CCREAD /etscc/kant. html#note1(accessed July 7, 2016).
[7]
E. McGrath. Christian Theology: An
Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell publishers Ltd, 2001), 98.
[9]
M. Stephen, New Trends in Christian
Theology (New Delhi: Serials Publications, 2009), 4.
[10]
McGrath, Alister E. Christian Theology:
An Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell publishers Ltd, 2001), 101.
[12]
Hugh T. Kerr, Readings in Christian
Thought (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1966), 217.
[13]
M. Stephen, New Trends in Christian
Theology (New Delhi: Serials Publications, 2009), 25.
[14]
Hugh T. Kerr, Readings in Christian
Thought (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1966), 227-228.
[15]
M. Stephen, New Trends in Christian
Theology (New Delhi: Serials Publications, 2009), 27.
[16]
Hugh T. Kerr, Readings in Christian
Thought (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1966), 274-282.
[17] Justo L. Gonzalez, The History of Christianity (San
Francisco: harper & Row, Publishers, 1984), 244-246.
[18] F. Hrangkhuma, Introduction to Church History
(Bangalore: Theological Book Trust, 1996), 351-355.
[19] Fr. Christopher O Mahony,, Church History: A Summary (Alwaye:
Pontifical Institute of Theology and Philosophy, 1974), 395-397.
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