Social Theories as Critical Tools for Analyzing People’s Experiences in India

Social Theories as Critical Tools for Analyzing People’s Experiences in India

February 2017                                                                        Presenter: Laldanmawia

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Introduction

If theology is to be authentically contextual, it needs to involve in people’s experiences. Doing contextual theology requires an active engagement in a particular situation. In doing so, we are formulating our theological methodologies. Sometimes we use different theories as tools for analyzing people’s experiences. In this paper, we also deal with the necessity, significance and the usage of social theories as critical tools for analyzing people’s experiences in India.

1. Some Aspects of Social Theories

Austin Harrington defines Social theory as analytical framework used to examine social phenomena. It studies about how societies change and develop, about methods of explaining social behaviour, about power and social structure, gender and ethnicity, modernity and civilisation, revolutions and utopias.[1] In the study of social phenomena, different theories and different types of theory have been implemented by different sociologists and social scientists.

Percy S. Cohen differentiates social theories into four types: [2]

(i) Analytical theories, those are of logic and mathematics which may state nothing about the real world, but consist of sets of axiomatic statements which are true by definition and from which other statements are derived.

(ii) Normative theories, which elaborate a set of ideal states to which one may aspire. Such theories like those of ethics and aesthetics are often combined with theories of non-normative nature to constitute ideologies, artistic principle and so on.

(iii)Scientific theories, which are ideally a universal, empirical statement which asserts a causal connection between two or more types of event. One simplest example is in its form ‘whenever X occurs, then Y occurs.’ A scientific theory is universal because it states something about the conditions under which some event or type of event always occurs. Scientific theories must be empirical and causal

(iv) Metaphysical or Programmatic theories, which are not strictly testable, though they may be subject to rational appraisal.  Some metaphysical theories have little or nothing to do with science, but others are clearly part of science. They constitute useful assumptions which have a programmatic or suggestive role.

Malcolm Waters’ four approaches to social theory are also worth mentioning, those are: [3]

(i) Constructionism, which seeks to understand individual and intersubjective meanings and motives. Here human beings are regarded as competent and communicative agents who actively create or construct the social world.

(ii) Utilitarianism, which seeks to explain behavior on the basis of an explicit calculus of individual interest and the means to realize them. Here hu7man human beings are regarded as calculating and maximizing, always seeking advantages at the expense of others.

(iii) Functionalism, which examines social arrangements in terms of their contribution to the meeting of the imperatives specified by an overarching shared normative system. Here human beings are regarded as religious and cultural conformists who cannot survive without social and moral support.

(iv) Critical structuralism, which traces the development through time of underlying material structures and their effects on individuals, societies and cultures. Here human beings are regarded as the victims of their socio economic and historical location which manipulates and twists them into distortions of their true selves.

2. Some Social Theories for Analyzing People’s Experiences in India

Those of Social theories developed in Western world are not simply applicable in Indian societies which are culturally different. In analyzing Dalit, women, Tribal and Adivasi’s experiences in India, we may need to apply different theoretical framework. In that study of Indian society, Sociologists used indology, structural functional, Marxian and other approaches.

2.1. Indological Approach: Indology deals with interpretation of ancient texts and linguistic studies of problems of ancient Indian culture. The Indological approach rested on the assumption that historically, Indian society and culture are unique. Its social realities could be grasped better through the ‘texts’. It also refers to the historical and comparative method based on Indian texts in the study of Indian society. It uses ancient history, epics, religious texts, legends, myths, folk traditions and other symbolic forms of culture.[4]

Indological approach is also called as “textual view” or “textual perspective” of social phenomena as it depends upon texts. An Indological has also been the hallmark of several sociologists. They have hammered against the acceptance of theoretical and methodological orientations of the western countries. These scholars emphasized the role of traditions, groups rather than individual as the basis of social relations and religion, ethics and philosophy as the basis of social organization. When field studies in many areas of their interest in India became difficult, textual analysis, either of classics or ethics or field notes from an earlier data, represented a fruitful basis for continued analysis of Indian structure and tradition.[5] This approach is used to understand the idealized life of Hindu society. Tribal social life can also be analyzed through legends, folk traditions, symbols, etc. Some Indian theological writers use Upanishads and other religious texts as source for knowing Indian social reality.

2.2. Structural Functional Approach: In the third quarter of the 20^th Century, the structural functional approach of Parsons and Merton was used in which the aspect of the integration was emphasized. Structural functional theories are the explanation of functionalists who are trying to bring order, integration, equilibrium and harmony in the social structure. They give explanation about structural aspects of a social situation and describe that how the normative order is functioning in that social structure.[6] This approach analyses society as a system of functionally interrelated variables. Those variables can be personalities in each society. Then that personality’s need is attempted to be treated. For example, professional rules have certain functions for the profession as a body; they define conditions of entry, demarcate the boundaries of the profession and prescribe the right and obligation of practitioner in relation to the society and so on.[7]

2.3. Marxian Approach: After Indian independence, Marxian approach was found to be appropriate particularly in the midst of dynamic relations in the agrarian society.[8] According to Marx, Class is the manifestation of economic differentiation. The concept of class struggle is all throughout the history of existing society. Classes are struggling their own role to play in the relations of production. Relations of production refer to the fact that in the process of industrial production the labour and capital stands in specific relation to each other. Marxist approach assumes that classes of people share the same relationship to the means of production. For example, all labourers have a similar relationship with the land owners. On the other hand all the landowners as a class have a similar relationship with the land and labourers.[9]

S. Kappen is famous for acknowledging the contribution of Marxism in the development of his interests for the poor and the marginalized and his critical thinking. For him, an authentic Indian Christian theology will emerge only when Jesus tradition merges with Indian religious tradition and with the positive insights of Marxism.[10]

2.4. Feminist Approach: Feminist methodology comes out with an analyzing of women’s experiences in the society. R.L. Hnuni says that the common starting point of feminist theology is the experience of women of a patriarchal oppression.[11] Their historical and societal experience of subordination and marginalization made women to raise the question about womanhood. Are they living in a half society? Yes it can be, if their experiences are not considered. Therefore feminist approach of social theory will examine and analyse a patriarchal society in order to turn a half society a whole society.

2.5. Approach from Below: We have to look society as a whole- all inclusive, because we do not have the full picture of the society leaving some groups of people to be invisible, those are powerless and poor. To understand the social depth and division in society, we may put our analytical approach from below perspective.[12] Moreover Indian socialists have largely neglected the social realities of the lowly placed and oppressed people.[13] If earlier those who occupied the bottom of society were invisible due to the cognitive blackout perpetuated by upper caste, middle class, urban, male researchers, today, with perspective from below, they are in full view and demand their legitimate share of representation in the production and representation of knowledge. All societies have bottom. Those bottoms are occupied by women, youth and proletariat, marginalized community, deprived section of society.[14] This necessitates the inauguration of approach from below. Dalit theological methodology is the outcome of analyzing the society from below perspective.

3. Necessity and Significance of Social Theories

In order to understand people, we need to know how their society works and functions. Many a times, we cannot just rely on our feelings, perceptions, impressions and assumptions about the people’s experiences in the society. That is why we need an analysis of the society using some theories and approaches. Some necessity and significance of social theories for analyzing people’s experiences in India, particularly for constructing theological methodology in Indian contextual theology are discussed in the following.

            3.1. To understand people, we need to understand society. We can understand people through their socio-cultural backgrounds. As human beings are social beings, individuals are connected through social aspects like family, tribe, caste, education, religion, job, etc. That is why we cannot really understand any individual without understanding his/her socio-cultural background.[15] Then we need social theory to analyze human’s socio-cultural background.

3.2. We cannot change society purposefully without knowing how to shape it. Is not the purpose of Indian Christian contextual theologies a change in the society? Yes, theologies are being developed in different Indian contexts in order to change something in the people’s life. To change, we need to know how to shape it; to know how to shape, we need to understand it; to understand it, and we need to analyze it. Social theories are engaging as critical tools as to know how changes take place in a society, how they affect people, how we can eventually oppose undesirable changes and contribute to a desirable transformation.[16]

3.3. We cannot do God’s will (or theology) in social life unless we understand in a critical ways how society functions. Without proper analysis we cannot solve social problems. Likewise we cannot develop a relevant contextual theology without critically analyzing the context. For example, if we are serious about ‘good news to the poor’ to bring changes to a particular people, we have to understand the causes of their poverty. If we are serious about God’s love to the margin and most despised we have to analyze the structures of discrimination such as patriarchy or caste. Only then we may be able to find appropriate ways to fight exploitation and discrimination.[17]

3.4. Theology gains its relevance if we analyze how its messages relate to changing social situations. Society is not static, but changing. Changes in the social situations affect people’s understanding of the word of God and the relevancy of the message. Our theological reflection in the wider society needs the help of social analysis in order to address such concern in an adequate way. Since theology has contextual and liberative approach, we need to adopt a critical analysis based on solidarity with the poor and the oppressed. Thus the relevance of the Bible, to be the guide for action from one generation to another, is enhanced through critical social analysis in the present context.[18]

Concluding Remarks

Human behavior is guided by social norms. Different social groups may have different norms. Then it is the duty of social researcher/analyst to find out this. Moreover, since all theologies arise out of certain social milieus I human history. To address their contemporary challenges, no meaningful construction of any contextual theology is possible without an analysis of the society for which theology is constructed.[19] In line with that, C. Nunthara would also suggest three values of Social research and analysis:[20]

            a) Success of social planning depends on systematic knowledge of societal resources, the people and their culture, their needs, their hopes and problems. This knowledge is gained by social research

            b) Social research provides knowledge about organization, society and institutions. Therefore it gives greater power on control over social phenomena.

            c) By a deeper understanding of the cause and effect of social sickness, it provides effective measures for its remedy to see what structural changes will bring about.

So, planning, control and effective measures for social welfare are the steps that we can take through social research and analysis. Tribals, Dalits, women, Adivasis, and other backward groups in India suffer from social injustices. On the part of sociology, theories are thus developed as critical tools to analyze and find out the social sickness. On the part of theology, contextual theologies are being developed to bring remedy to all societal problems faced by the people. Our contextual theology thus demands the mediation of social theories. To create social order of justice and freedom, social analysis is necessary, and then we can apply our theological reflections on the basis of our analytical findings.

In the words of Huang Po Ho, “if theology is to be rooted in context, it must address the problems of the living situation, and then only we can create suitable and responsive theology to it through the established methodology”.[21] To address the living situation, we need to analyze the exact condition first. Thus contextual theological methodology requires a social analysis through available theories. We cannot deny the importance of social theory to know more about people’s experiences, because it provides significant guidelines for the conduct of research and analysis and it enhances the meaningfulness of the social analysis.

Bibliography

Cohen, Percy S. Modern Social Theory. London: Heinemann Educational Books, 1979.

Dietrich, Gabriele and Bas Wielenga. Towards Understanding Indian Society. Madurai:

Centre for Social Analysis, Tamilnadu, 1997.

Hnuni, R. L. “Feminist Theology: Methodology” in Contextual Theology. Compiled by Wati

Longchar. Kolkata: SCEPTRE, 2013.

Ho, Huang Po. “Contextual Theologies” in Contextual Theologies. Compiled by Wati

Longchar. Kolkata: SCEPTRE, 2013.

Kappen, S. “Towards an Indian Theology of Liberation” Readings in Indian Christian Theology.

Edited by R. S. Sugirtharajah and Cecil Hargreaves. London: SPCK, 1993.

Nunthara, C. “Methodological Issues in Social research” Methodological Issues in Theological

Research: An Exploration., edited by H. Vanlalauva (Kolkata: Department of Research/SATHRI, Faculty of Theology, Serampore College University, 2013.

Oommen, T. K. Understanding Indian Society: The Relevance of Perspective from Below.

Pune: Department of Sociology, University of Pune, 2001.

Ralte, Lalrindiki “Methodological Issues in Social Analysis” Methodological Issues in

Theological Research: An Exploration. Edited by H. Vanlalauva. Kolkata: Department of Research/SATHRI, Faculty of Theology, Serampore College University, 2013.

Thanzauva, K. “Issues in Tribal Theology” An Exploration of Tribal Theology. Edited by Wati Longchar.

Jorhat: Tzudikong Baptist Chruch, 1997.

Waters, Malcolm. Modern Sociological Theory. London: SAGE Publications Ltd, 1994.

Webliography

Mondal, Puja “Indological or Textual Perspective of Sociology” in

http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/indological-or-textual-perspective-of-

sociology-explained/35011/ (accessed January 29, 2017).

http://socialtheoryapplied.com/what-is-social-theory/ (accessed January 29, 2017).

 

Priya, Rashmi. “Marx’s Sociology: Theory of Class Struggle” in http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com /sociology/marxs-sociology-theory-of-class-struggle/43763/ (accessed February 10, 2017).

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[1] http://socialtheoryapplied.com/what-is-social-theory/ (accessed January 29, 2017).

[2] Percy S. Cohen, Modern Social Theory (London: Heinemann Educational Books, 1979), 2-5.

[3] Malcolm Waters, Modern Sociological Theory (London: SAGE Publications Ltd, 1994), 6.

[4] Puja Mondal, “Indological or Textual Perspective of Sociology” http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/indological-or-textual-perspective-of-sociology-explained/35011/ (accessed January 29, 2017).

[5] Puja Mondal, “Indological or Textual perspective of Sociology”...

[6] T. K. Oommen, Understanding Indian Society: The Relevance of Perspective from Below (Pune: Department of Sociology, University of Pune, 2001), 3.

[7] Percy S. Cohen, Modern Social Theory, 46.

[8] T. K. Oommen, Understanding Indian Society: The Relevance of Perspective from Below, 3.

[9] Rashmi Priya, “Marx’s Sociology: Theory of Class Struggle” inhttp://www.yourarticlelibrary.com /sociology/marxs-sociology-theory-of-class-struggle/43763/ (accessed February 10, 2017).

[10] S. Kappen, “Towards an Indian Theology of Liberation” Readings in Indian Christian Theology., edited by R. S. Sugirtharajah and Cecil Hargreaves (London: SPCK, 1993), 24.

[11] R. L. Hnuni, “Feminist Theology: Methodology” Contextual Theology, compiled by Wati Longchar (Kolkata: SCEPTRE, 2013), 207.

[12] Gabriele Dietrich and Bas Wielenga, Towards Understanding Indian Society (Madurai: Centre for Social Analysis, Tamilnadu, 1997), 14.

[13] T. K. Oommen, Understanding Indian Society: The Relevance of Perspective from Below, 16.

[14] T. K. Oommen, Understanding Indian Society: The Relevance of Perspective from Below, 11.

[15] Lalrindiki Ralte, “Methodological Issues in Social Analysis” Methodological Issues in Theological Research: An Exploration., edited by H. Vanlalauva (Kolkata: Department of Research/SATHRI, Faculty of Theology, Serampore College University, 2013), 320.

[16] Gabriele Dietrich and Bas Wielenga, Towards Understanding Indian Society, 5.

[17] Gabriele Dietrich and Bas Wielenga, Towards Understanding Indian Society, 6.

[18] Lalrindiki Ralte, “Methodological Issues in Social Analysis”, 322.

[19] K. Thanzauva, “Issues in Tribal Theology” An Exploration of Tribal Theology, edited by Wati Longchar (Jorhat: Tzudikong Baptist Chruch, 1997), 49.

[20] C. Nunthara, “Methodological Issues in Social research” Methodological Issues in Theological Research: An Exploration., edited by H. Vanlalauva (Kolkata: Department of Research/SATHRI, Faculty of Theology, Serampore College University, 2013), 276.

[21] Huang Po Ho, “Contextual Theologies” Contextual Theologies, compiled by Wati Longchar (Kolkata: SCEPTRE, 2013), 26.